The use of psychoactive substances for ritual or military purposes is attested in many ancient civilizations, but little explored among the so-called “barbarian” peoples of northern Europe during the Roman era. A study by researchers at Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, published in Praehistorische Zeitschrift, sheds light on this little-known aspect of history through the analysis of unique artifacts: miniature spoons attached to Germanic warriors' belts.
These objects, discovered at votive and funerary sites in Scandinavia and central Europe, suggest the systematic use of natural stimulants to overcome the stress of battle and improve physical performance. The work, combining archeology and botany, reveals a complex network of access and preparation of these substances, overturning preconceived ideas about the warlike practices of these societies.
Revealing objects: teaspoons and belts
The most emblematic artifacts of the use of stimulants by Germanic barbarian warriors of the Roman era are small metal spoons! Anna Jarosz-Wilkołazka and her team analyzed them because of their obvious connection with military equipment. In fact, they were attached to the belts of warriors. Researchers have discovered them in various military contexts. This includes tombs and votive sites in Scandinavia and central Europe. These objects only measure between 10 and 20 millimeters in diameter. Their specific design leaves little doubt as to their function. These spoons were used to dose and consume psychoactive substances, a ritual likely essential to prepare for the physical and psychological challenges of battle. These accessories demonstrate advanced knowledge of the use of stimulants. They highlight a little-known facet of ancient warrior practices.
Belt ends ending in a small spoon and a flat disc: a – type A1 (Illerup – after Ilkjær 1993b), b – type A2 (Nydam – after Rau 2010b); c – type B (Zadowice – after Madyda-Legutko 2011). © A. Jarosz-Wilkolazka et al., 2024
Concretely, spoons adorned belts, a central element of military equipment. Excavations carried out at the votive site of the Illerup marshes, in Denmark, made it possible to find nearly 150 belts of this type. This undoubtedly attests to the omnipresence of these objects in warrior paraphernalia. A thorough analysis of the deposits indicates that approximately half of the warriors in an army therefore used these devices. On the one hand to improve their physical endurance, on the other hand to alleviate stress and fear before fights. But what magical substances or potions could Germanic barbarian warriors use in Roman times?
Substances used by barbarians: plants and mushrooms
Research highlights the use of plants and mushrooms with psychoactive properties. Among the most common, poppy (Papaver somniferum), cannabis (Cannabis sativa) and henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) appear to be preferred choices. We can also cite hops and hemp. They were therefore also accompanied by hallucinogenic mushrooms such as the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria). These substances were widely available in Germanic and Scandinavian territories. They were probably prepared there in the form of decoctions, infusions or powders. In liquid form, these plants were to be consumed dissolved in alcohol. These preparations obviously had to make their ingestion easier thanks to the small spoons attached to the warriors' belts. The objective of their consumption was twofold: to increase physical endurance while modifying states of consciousness to overcome the fear and stress of confrontations.
Small spoons from Mušov (a – after Künzl/Künzl 2002) and Illerup (b – after Ilkjær 1993b). © A. Jarosz-Wilkolazka et al., 2024
The poppy, in particular, produced opium rich in alkaloids such as morphine and codeine. It offered powerful analgesic effects and relaxing properties ideal for bodies subjected to extreme exertion. Cannabis, on the other hand, was valued for its varied effects, ranging from anxiety reduction to mild stimulation, depending on the doses and parts of the plant used. Henbane, with its tropane alkaloids like scopolamine, induced hallucinations and dissociation. We can imagine that it was used to mentally prepare warriors for a state of almost mystical trance. Fly agaric, although toxic in large doses, produced hallucinations and a feeling of euphoria. It probably reinforced the perception of invincibility in combat.
A widespread, but invisible practice
Historical sources, notably Roman writings, do not directly mention the use of stimulants by barbarians. But archaeological discoveries provide tangible evidence of these practices. The small spoons attached to warrior belts are an emblematic example. Additionally, the researchers note that providing the amount and type of stimulants needed would have required considerable knowledge and organization.
These artifacts, although seemingly discreet, “ demonstrate a complex integration of stimulants into military practices, beyond their simple functional utility “. These tools were clearly more than just accessories. They reflected a sophisticated adaptation to physical and psychological needs in a context of intense war.
Germanic warrior taking stimulants. © Stanisław Kontny for Prehistoric Journal
The analysis of votive deposits, such as that of the Illerup marshes, shows a social and cultural acceptance of these practices. This suggests large-scale institutionalization. The authors explain: “ It seems that knowledge of the effects of various types of natural preparations on the human body implied knowledge of their occurrence, methods of application and the desire to consciously use this wealth for medicinal and ritual purposes “. These sites contain an abundance of belts fitted with spoons, sometimes associated with weapons and other ritual equipment. According to the authors, this indicates widespread use of stimulants among warriors. “ These objects reveal a strategic use of psychoactive substances, not only to increase individual performance, but also as part of collective ceremonies before battles “.
But we still remain far from the world of Asterix and the druid distributing his potion to the whole village before facing the Roman troops!
Source: Anna Jarosz-Wilkołazka et al., “In a narcotic trance, or stimulants in Germanic communities of the Roman period”, Praehistorical Zeitschrift (2024)
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